The newly redesigned male condom by Origami Condoms. Courtesy of Origami Condoms.

What would the ideal condom look like?

True to the words of the old Microsoft slogan “Your Potential. Our Passion,” the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has offered $100,000 to the person who will create “the next generation condom that significantly preserves or enhances pleasure” and promotes “regular use.” The competition provides a renewable grant to successful applicants who exhibit “unorthodox thinking” in their approach to tackling global health challenges. The deadline for proposal submissions is May 7, and winners will be notified in November.

The use of condoms, or rather the lack thereof, is a huge global health concern, particularly in countries with high HIV rates and high-risk populations. When used correctly, condoms reduce the risk of pregnancy by 98 percent and the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases by up to 95 percent. However, due to reasons both religious and cultural, many people still prefer to engage in unprotected sex. Some people also feel that condoms can ruin sexual experiences.

For an outline of the differences between Origami Condoms and Latex Condoms. Courtesy of Origami Condoms, check out the link below.
http://vimeo.com/50859363

Even before the Bill and Melinda Gates competition, a California-based company named Origami has aimed to address this issue. Origami has replaced latex with silicone to produce a condom that is not subject to tearing and slipping. The condom, which will be the first-ever silicone condom, is intended to facilitate both a more pleasurable and safe sexual experience. Unlike the ordinary condom that takes an average of 6.2 seconds to put on, the origami condom only takes about 2.8 seconds to put on.

While the Bill and Melinda Gates foundation have lauded Origami’s condom on their blog, calling it a “good example of a new philosophical approach” to global health problems, others have their doubts about its design and practicality. The fact that this condom might cost more than the ordinary condom also raises questions as to its accessibility for people in developing countries, who may not be able to afford more costly contraceptives.

Daniel Resnic, CEO of Origami Condoms speaks about the inspiration behind the condom and the future of Origami Condoms in the link below. Courtesy of Origami Condoms.
http://vimeo.com/63356791

The major competition that Origami faces at the moment comes from Washington University, where researchers are working on a condom utilizing MultiPurpose Technology (MPT). This invention combines several technologies, such as a drug-eluting fiber mesh designed for topical drug delivery, so that it may function as both a chemical and physical barrier.

Despite the possible advancement in condom technology that the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation competition will bring, there are still many cultural and social issues that may impede the distribution and use of the winning condom design. Perhaps the best way to improve sexual health around the world would be to tackle these more fundamental issues first.

A microscope was assembled using an iPhone and an $8 glass ball lens. Courtesy of Isaac Bogoch.

The iPhone can now be transformed into a microscope to detect hookworms. No, it is not a new app; all it takes is an $8 ball lens, an ordinary microscope slide, and some tape. While on a field study in Tanzania last fall, Isaac Bogoch, an infectious disease specialist at Toronto General Hospital, assembled the “iMicroscope” to detect giant roundworms and whipworms in nearly 200 children.

Without constant access to laboratory microscopes, Bogoch hypothesized that his iPhone could perform the same function for his work in developing countries. He taped an $8 ball lens onto the iPhone’s camera to assemble the “iMicroscope”, which could magnify stool samples on microscope slides by 50 times through the iPhone’s built-in camera application. Parasitic roundworms (helminth) and their eggs could be detected with 80 percent and 70 percent accuracy, respectively, using the makeshift tool — a rate that is not too far below that of laboratory microscopes (usually 87 percent). Bogoch and his colleagues plan to refine the design to consistently achieve 80 percent accuracy before adopting it into regular field operations.

24 percent of the world population suffers from intestinal worms. Courtesy of Zak Stone.

The invention holds promise for nearly two billion people (24 percent of the world’s population) who suffer from infections by intestinal parasitic worms. It could be particularly helpful for fieldwork in countries in Sub-Saharan Africa like Tanzania, where nearly half of all children were infected by the parasite as recently as 2005. Helminth diseases, usually transmitted by eggs deposited within human stool in soil, are especially prevalent in developing regions where poor sanitation results in high soil-contamination. As Bogoch told the National Post last month, “the ultimate goal is ensuring that people have appropriate quality of care regardless of where they live and regardless of their socio-economic status.”

Advanced laboratory equipment is hardly affordable for wide circulation, but Chinese smartphones as cheap as $80 are accessible in African markets. According to Bogoch, any phone with a good camera and zooming function can be transformed into a microscope. Even those who can afford a diagnosis using advanced equipment could benefit from the iMicroscope’s instant detection capability. For patients who may have to wait for weeks to receive results from laboratories, a new generation of worms could mature to the adult stage in the meantime, whereas an instant detection menthod would enable anthelmintic drug treatments to be started immediately to kill or paralyze the worms.

Helminth infections are widespread in Sub-Saharan Africa. Courtesy of Global Atlas of Helminth Infections.

Bogoch is the first to use an iPhone to detect intestinal parasites. But smartphones have been used as microscopes before, the first time in 2011 to detect blood diseases. Sebastian Wachsman-Hogiu, a UC Davis physicist, was able to detect both the low levels of blood cells in iron deficiency anemia, and the crescent-shaped blood cells of sickle-cell anemia. The iPhone camera’s semiconductor sensor, which is light-sensitive to 1.7 micrometers , could easily display red blood cells, which are 7 micrometers in diameter.

Though inventing the iMicroscope in its original improvised form did not require the work of Silicon Valley engineers, perhaps it will inspire technology producers to create an application that officially facilitates the use of smartphones as microscopes. In the near future, such technology could allow doctors to share blood samples, provide feedback in real-time, crosscheck new images with a database of previous diagnoses, and respond to infected patients with the confident assertion, “Yes! There’s an app for that!”

A pile of used needles: a potent mechanism for the spread of HIV. Courtesy of The Fresh Scent.

There are 4,880,000 people in St. Petersburg. Of them, around 80,000 inject drugs. Of them, 40,000 have HIV. Thousands of drug users each year pull the trigger of a used syringe and bet their lives.

In a recent study by the Yale School of Public Health, researchers mapped the prevalence of HIV in St. Petersburg and noted how rates correlated with the locations of pharmacies that sold syringes without prescription. The results were strikingly null: In fact, there was little correlation between the presence of clinics and HIV infection rates.

Aerial view of St. Petersburg. Courtesy of Saint Petersburg.

When a group of researchers led by Yale Professor Robert Heimer and his Russian counterpart Professor Alla Shaboltas went to investigate, the underlying cause became apparent. Even though pharmacies in Russia are legally allowed to sell syringes, one-third of them either refuse or are typically out of stock. This reluctance to adequately cater to the needs of an ailing subsection of the population lies at the heart of the barrier to containing the spread of HIV.

As Professor Heimer puts it, “The HIV epidemic, especially among people who inject drugs, is as much a disease of social structures as it is a disease transmitted by individual behaviors. When syringes are unavailable because of prejudice against drug users, the users are likely to resort to risky practices such as sharing syringes.” Moreover, Heimer notes that in Russia, HIV prevention programs are hampered by “a pervasive fear of being perceived by those in power of falling unduly under ‘foreign influence.’” Because of this fear, it has proven exceedingly difficult for foreign public health advocates to affect policy change in Russia.

Graphic illustrating the dangers of reusing syringes. Courtesy of The Right Truth.

Sadly, this situation is frustratingly common. For many pervasive public-health crises, scientific solutions are known, but social and political obstacles remain.

The sign for Sloane Physics Laboratory on Science Hill. Courtesy of the Yale Department of Physics.

Three members of the Yale Society of Physics Students, Po-Yi Ho BR ’14, Steven Zwick PC ’14, and Robert Davies DC ’13, offer the following pieces of advice (in no particular order of significance) for students at Yale interested in majoring in Physics:

1. First, make sure you read the textbook — it might be more useful than going to class.

2. Differential equations and linear algebra are both very useful. But despite what the Yale Bluebook says, taking Math 230 (Vector Calculus and Linear Algebra I) is not necessary to take concurrently with Physics 260 (Intensive Introductory Physics). See next point for further explanation.

3. A lot of math is covered in the physics classes themselves. Physics professors will assume that you know multivariable calculus and linear algebra, but otherwise, they will teach you the math you need to know.

4. You can start taking graduate level courses as a junior or senior; for example, there is a graduate class on general relatively if you are inclined to study that subject in your junior year.

5. You should probably take quantum mechanics before you take statistical mechanics. Make sure you take PHYS 420 (Statistical Mechanics) when you do not have a lot of other things going on. It is the hardest class in the major.

The entrance to Sloane Physics Laboratory, which holds a majority of Physics classes. Courtesy of Yale Department of Physics.

6. We have a lot of great professors here. Make sure you talk to professors a lot.

7. Always do independent research. Research is not a requirement, but if you want to go to a good graduate school, do as much research as you can. You will learn lots of things that are not covered in classes, and you will get experience making posters and giving talks.

8. For research during your freshman and sophomore summer, go somewhere other than Yale. Then, for your junior summer, stay here and get to know a professor.

9. Make sure you talk to graduate students; they are generally very friendly.

10. Do not start your senior project during fall of your senior year. Do it in the summer of your junior year. 40 hours a week feels like nothing during the summer, but 10 ten hours a week is a huge burden during the school year.

J.W. Gibbs Laboratory on Science Hill, which holds the majority of Physics lab courses, professor offices, and research labs. Courtesy of commons.wikimedia.org.

11. For your senior research, building a relationship with your professor is critical. You want to show them you’re working in their lab because you want to, not because you need to get your project done at the last minute.

12. If you want to go to graduate school, three things matter. The first is your GRE, which is just making sure you know enough physics. Second is your personal statement, and third are your recommendations. Peter Parker, the Director of Undergraduate Studies in Physics, gives good advice about applying to graduate school.

13. Make friends with people in your physics classes — they are also really cool. Work on problems on your own, and then meet with a study group. It is good to have a study group.

14. If you are not sure what you are interested in as a freshman, come to lots of talks, try working in different labs, and read lots of different articles.

15. Most importantly, take it easy. It’s fun. Don’t worry too much.

An artist’s rendition of the hypothetical placental mammalian ancestor, a small insect-eating animal. The research team reconstructed the anatomy of the animal by mapping traits onto the evolutionary tree most strongly supported by combined phenomic and genomic data and comparing the features in placental mammals with those seen in their closest relatives. Courtesy of Carl Buell.

Researchers headed by Yale Professor of Anthropology Eric Sargis have created a family tree of mammalian species using morphological data in addition to previously used genetic data. In its morphological analysis, the study looks at physical features — especially bones — in order to find similarities between species. These similarities are then used generate a most parsimonious, or “best fit”, phylogeny of placental mammals.

The backbone of this project was the creation of MorphoBank, a web database of physical features. Researchers painstakingly coded information on 4,541 physical features for 86 mammal species, uploading both pictures and coded features. To start out, they used mostly living species because of the availability of anatomical data. However, the focus on anatomical features gives the project the potential to add data from many extinct mammal species for which genetic data cannot be obtained. Because many mammal species are extinct and can only be classified using fossils, the project will allow the fossils of extinct species to contribute to the phylogeny. The scale of this project is unprecedented and has allowed researchers to add some information to family trees that had previously been constructed on solely genetic information. Sargis describes this project by stating, “This is giving the anatomical data a chance to contribute to the answer.”

Before this paper, genetic analyses had predicted that the most recent common ancestor of placental mammals existed well before the K-Pg boundary and that over 29 mammalian lineages crossed the K-Pg boundary. This is unexpected because the K-Pg boundary refers to the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event — the event that knocked out the dinosaurs. It would be odd that so many mammalian lineages survived the event while many other species died. This prediction also failed to match the fossil record: As hard as scientists tried, they could not find fossils that showed the existence of diverse placental mammals before the K-Pg boundary.

Screenshots of the phenomic matrix constructed in MorphoBank demonstrating the project’s data documentation, including images describing traits and discussion threads. MorphoBank is a publicly available web application and database that facilitates large-scale, online phenomic data collection, and real-time interaction among collaborators worldwide. MorphoBank provides new tools to manage large phylophenomic datasets. Image of Hapalops elongatus courtesy of artist John Sibbick and reused courtesy of D. Norman.

With this in mind, Sargis and other researchers worked to add physical data to the phylogenetic analysis. There were originally four teams when building the matrix: one focused on the skull, one on the skeleton (not including the skull), one on soft tissue, and the other on teeth. Teeth are especially important in describing mammals, because as Sargis says, “most fossil mammals are only known from teeth”. They analyzed the 4,541 physical traits, treating each equally in the overall matrix, and came upon a number of findings that stood contrary to previous perceptions. For one thing, their analysis found that some fossil genera, like Eomaia, were probably not placental mammals. However, the main finding of the paper was that the most recent common ancestor of all placental mammals species probably arose after the K-Pg boundary and that there was a post-K-Pg increase and speciation of placental mammals.

This post K-Pg radiation has huge implications for the determination of driving factors for placental mammal speciation. Using previous dates of divergence, scientists had hypothesized that much of speciation was driven by the breakup of continents. These new data put placental radiation after the continental splits. However, even without spatial drivers, it is not that surprising that we see so many new species of placental mammals occurring after the K-Pg boundary. Sargis says, “You have lots of niches opening up. You have the extinction of dinosaurs and lots of ecological space opening up. It’s not that surprising in those ways. What is surprising is how quickly this radiation happened”.

Another interesting point from this paper was the reconstruction of the most recent common ancestor. Using all of this anatomical data, the team worked to predict what this species looked like. They found that the species was probably between 6 and 245 grams, insectivorous, and, of course, had a placenta. They were even able to predict what its teeth looked like.

The new evolutionary tree for placental mammals, created by combining phenomic and genomic data. Courtesy of Stony Brook University/ Luci Betti Nash.

Still, Professor Eric Sargis stresses, “As far as I am concerned, this is the beginning… This is a hypothesis of relationships. This is a hypothesis of the timing of divergence that will continue to be tested … as we add more taxa, especially fossil taxa, that may change the tree.” He believes that one of the most exciting parts of the project is the creation of MorphoBank, because “this will make morphological systematics much more explicit and repeatable.” This does represent somewhat of a departure from genetics-heavy techniques that are used by many labs today because of their comparative ease of use. However, this work proves that anatomical information is still just as important in determining scientific questions about the history of life.

Energy drink advertising. Courtesy of flickr.com.

Yale researchers at the Rudd Center for Food Policy recently published a study in the Journal of Public Health focusing on the emergence of energy drinks as a serious public health concern, especially for the youth. The study revealed startling statistics on the consequence of energy drinks between 2005 and 2009, reporting a tenfold increase in hospital emergency visits due to energy drink consumption.

Jennifer Pomeranz, Director of Legal Initiatives at the Rudd Center and corresponding author of the study, cautions that energy drinks contain high levels of caffeine, sugar, and sodium, as well as other ingredients, such as guarana and taurine, that have not been approved by the FDA. A typical energy drink contains the same amount of sugar and more three times the sodium found in soda, resulting in increased risk of high blood pressure, heart attack, and stroke. Pomeranz further warns that excessive caffeine consumption adversely affects the developing neurological and cardiovascular systems in young consumers and can result in physical dependence.

The variety of energy drinks on the market. Courtesy of flickr.com.

Adolescent consumption of energy drinks is partially due to targeted advertising by energy drink companies: most energy drinks are featured on youth-orientated cable channels, and the average U.S. child views the same number of ads for energy drinks as for other drinks that commonly target a young crowd, such as Capri Sun and Kool-Aid.

Another source of concern is inconsistent labeling and reporting of ingredients across different manufacturers. The study reports that many energy drinks are mislabeled as dietary supplements, allowing companies to avoid directly reporting caffeine content and other ingredients.

Nutrition label of Energy Drinks. Courtesy of flickr.com.

In order to combat the public health concern posed by energy drinks, Pomeranz recommends changing FDA regulation policy to “require full disclosure of all the ingredients and total amount of caffeine” in energy drinks and to minimize advertising of energy drinks to the youth.

The growing accessibility of energy drinks. Courtesy of wikicommons.

A good appetite can lead to a more robust immune system that will not be susceptible to autoimmune disease. Courtesy of Tamas L. Horvath.

At first glance, the nervous system and the immune system seem like independent entities: the nervous system monitors and controls bodily functions through the neural electrical network, while the immune system chemically reacts against “non-self” particles. However, in reality, all systems of the body work together to maintain a delicate homeostasis and are interrelated in ways often yet-to-be-explained by research.

A recent study serves as a perfect example of this integration of systems. Dr. Tamas L. Horvath, Professor of Neurobiology and Chair of the Section of Comparative Medicine at the Yale School of Medicine, and his team have experimentally linked hunger suppression in mice to increased probability of incurring the autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis in predisposed individuals. This result also suggests that drugs used for weight-loss could lead to undesirable consequences in the immune system.

The neural network is intertwined with other bodily systems, such as the immune system. Courtesy of Tamas L. Horvath.

An experimental model using knockout mice was utilized to observe the system. First, hunger suppression in the mice had to be induced. This was achieved by using mice that lacked a certain gene, which caused the mice to have a decreased appetite. The mice were then tested for immune system response. The findings suggest that apparent behavioral traits that are under neural control, such as hunger and emotion, have an undeniable impact on immune function: in this case, in promoting the onset of autoimmune diseases.

It is surprising to note that the greatest obstacle in this particular study was not related to the experiments. Rather, Dr. Horvath stated that the interest in interdisciplinary research spanning these apparently unrelated fields was low since there did not seem to be any apparent connection between his area of study, obesity and hunger, and immune function. However, the insight that this study provides on immune function could fundamentally change the field of immunology, suggesting that this interdisciplinary project was a success.

The neurons in the body are not independent of other bodily networks. Rather, they impact many yet-to-be-understood mechanisms in the body. Courtesy of Tamas L. Horvath.

According to Dr. Horvath, “the next step is to determine immune response in conditions of acute hunger suppression.” What would happen to T cell response if the subject does not eat for a few days, and how is the overall health of an individual impacted by such fleeting behaviors? The potential value of such a study is enormous because the results could indicate whether decreased appetite by personal choice is also detrimental to immune function, and therefore whether behavioral traits under an individual’s control are a factor in immune system response. In such a case, Dr. Horvath predicts, “modulating behavior could result in immune system enhancement.” The real implications do not only pertain to hunger control and autoimmune disease, but also to the introduction of a new area of study connecting overall immune response to any number of nervous-system-controlled behavioral patterns.

CARE has started several initiatives in New Haven public schools to encourage health awareness among children.

According to results of a 2012 survey conducted by Yale researchers, residents in some of New Haven’s most under-resourced neighborhoods are beginning to make healthier choices.

New Haven, a city with large health disparities, has traditionally demonstrated higher-than-average risks for chronic health problems such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, asthma and obesity. The new results provide optimism to city officials, educators, and organizations aiming to promote healthier lifestyles and ultimately reduce chronic disease in New Haven residents.

The study, run by the Community Alliance for Research and Engagement (CARE) at the Yale School of Public Health, involved a two-month, door-to-door survey of around 1,300 residents from age 18 to 65 living in the Dixwell, West River/Dwight, Fair Haven, Hill North, Newhallville and West Rock/West Hills neighborhoods. The six neighborhoods are considered some of New Haven’s least-resourced areas, and demonstrate higher rates of chronic disease, smoking, and obesity than both Connecticut and US averages.

Dixwell is one of the New Haven neighborhoods surveyed by CARE.

Results from the survey, however, indicate healthy behavioral trends. Of the residents surveyed, 39 percent reported improved health compared to one year earlier, 40 percent reported that people in their neighborhoods encourage a move toward healthier lifestyles, 42 percent reported changes happening in their neighborhood to make a healthy lifestyle easier, 63 percent reported increasing their physical activity, 58 percent reported making healthy changes to their diet and 65 percent of smokers indicated they wanted to quit. Compared to a similar 2009 survey done by CARE, daily consumption of sweets, sugary drinks and foods high in fat and salt have all decreased, and 17 percent fewer residents report lifestyles that completely exclude exercise.

Oftentimes, poor health is associated with lower income demographics, and survey results show that many residents are still struggling financially. Of those surveyed, 36 percent are “just getting by,” 34 percent have less than $15,000 household income, 23 percent are unemployed, and 44 percent receive food stamps.

CARE hopes to leverage these findings to develop a Citywide Action Plan for better health. CARE is a public health alliance between New Haven leaders and Yale representatives whose mission is to improve New Haven’s health disparities through research and active initiatives. According to CARE Deputy Director Alycia Santilli, CARE utilizes a “community organizing approach at the grassroots level” to achieve these goals. In the past five years, CARE has offered programs such as Quit & Win (a program encouraging smokers to quit), Health Challenges for kids in New Haven public schools to promote healthier eating and exercise habits, and increased access to food stamps for families struggling with food security.

A girl having her face painted by a volunteer at a CARE-sponsored Diabetes Awareness Day. At this public health event, CARE staff provided the community with information on diabetes, blood glucose testing, and various fun activities.

The most recent survey results show there is still significant potential for improvement. While residents seem to be making behavioral changes for the better, health disparities and chronic disease have not decreased significantly since 2009, and financial concerns remain. According to Santilli, CARE realistically expects a slow reduction of these disparities, but hopes to continually push residents in the right direction by promoting healthier lifestyle habits. Only through such cultural changes can long-term health improvements be made.

“CARE [is] extremely committed in using these results and working with neighborhood leaders to make changes at a very local level,” says Santilli. In line with these goals, CARE has already held community meetings to inform residents of its survey results and solicit feedback. Residents suggested several ideas for making neighborhoods healthier, including increased options for low-cost recreational space, more parks and trails, easier access to healthful food options, and cleaner and safer streets.

Moving forward, CARE hopes to further engage with city government, hospitals, health centers, schools, neighborhoods, and other groups to continue its current work and implement new resident-driven initiatives. Slowly but surely, CARE believes these efforts will create meaningful change for the health of New Haven.

Assisted living companies (or at-home assistance companies), an alternative to nursing homes, allow seniors to retain a greater degree of autonomy. Courtesy of charhall.org.

The media’s portrayal of the elderly has, especially in recent years’ television commercials for certain senior services and products, seemed awkward and comically overdramatic. Yet many of these commercials illustrate a threat that is often very real for elderly persons — social isolation. Seniors are particularly vulnerable to accidents and sudden health issues (such as heart attacks); but, because they are habitually alone, no one is present to provide help. These tragedies can be easily prevented, yet many seniors remain isolated.

Some scientists believe that beyond this much-needed assistance, visitors can provide a crucial benefit to the elderly: company. Many elderly individuals report that their lack of interaction with others causes them to feel lonely. Loneliness is often thought of as a necessary consequence of social isolation.Yet, while isolation and loneliness have an intimate relationship, many isolated individuals claim they do not feel lonely, and many sociable individuals claim to in fact feel lonely. As a result, scientists have begun to question if social isolation, loneliness, or a combination of both has the most significant impact on mortality rates in the elderly.

Many find nursing homes disagreeable or even depressing, but they provide necessary assistance — and perhaps necessary company — for the elderly. Courtesy of charhall.org.

To determine if social isolation and loneliness impair health independently, or if social isolation impairs health through loneliness, Andrew Steptoe of the University College London and a team of colleagues conducted a recent study on 6,500 men and women aged 52 and older. Social isolation was measured through “contact with family and friends and participation in civic organizations,” whereas loneliness was measured by a questionnaire. After adjusting for “demographic factors and baseline health,” the researchers found a significant association between social isolation and mortality rates, yet no such association existed between loneliness and mortality rates. Social isolation, they conclude, is independent of loneliness — and is far more fatal.

While this study presents persuasive evidence that social isolation and not loneliness has increased mortality rates among the elderly, the debate is far from settled. Other studies have found evidence to the contrary, and the scientific community will likely continue investigating until a consensus has been reached.

Unfortunately, many elderly persons live in isolation. Whether due to a lack of assistance during emergencies or due to loneliness, the mortality rate is much higher for these individuals. Courtesy of elderfocus.wordpress.com.

Though controversial, this study explores an area of information that is important for companies, families, and governments. If social isolation is indeed strongly associated with mortality rates, both government policies and family decisions regarding the elderly ought to aim to reduce their seclusion. Putting loved ones into nursing homes, for example, is often considered unpleasant or undesirable, yet this research suggests it may be in their best interest. From a business perspective, this study may provide useful evidence for the efficacy of nursing homes and similar programs. Firms offering services to help monitor or provide company for elderly individuals may be more valuable than they may seem — in spite of their comical commercials.

A population of bees on a honeycomb. Courtesy of fotopedia.com.

Honeybees play an essential role in the production of our food through pollination; however, they are disappearing at an alarming rate, and the exact reason is yet to be determined. This enigma has come to the attention of many, and scientists are actively investigating potential causes of this decline. Loss of habitat, stress, and various diseases all play a role, but researchers are now looking at common pesticides as potential causal factors.

Two commonly used pesticides, neonicotinoids and coumaphos, are being studied to determine their affect on honeybees and their central nervous system. Neonicotinoid is a common pesticide used on oil rapeseed, whereas coumaphos are used to kill the Varroa mite, which is parasitic to the honeybee. Researchers have found that individually, these pesticides impact the ability of honeybees to process information, specifically in memory formation and olfactory learning; however, the simultaneous application of both of the pesticides produces a much more severe effect.

Pesticides being sprayed on a variety of crops. Courtesy of Wikimedia.org.

Recent findings published in Nature Communications also show that neonicotinoids cause a type of neural inactivation in honeybees. Dr. Christopher Connolly of the University of Dundee in Scotland noted that when the pesticides were put directly on the brain, a loss of brain activity resulted. The patterns suggest that neonicotinoids cause epileptic activity in the brain, followed by a loss of activity.

The pesticides ultimately affect the cognitive function and skills of honeybees, making it difficult for them to locate essential resources. Pesticides thus pose a problem, because memory formation and olfactory learning are key to the honeybee’s survival. If these skills are compromised, the bees are unable to recall floral smells while searching for food. Dr. Sally Williamson, a researcher at Newcastle University, is concerned that such results show that these pesticides compromise the ability of bees to forage effectively and communicate with each other to locate sources of pollen and nectar.

However, another study conducted by the UK’s Food and Environment Research Agency (Fera) no relationship between neonicotinoid exposure and honeybee cognition and suggest that the hypothesized effects may be misleading.

A honeybee pollinating a flower. Courtesy of Wikimedia.org.

Despite Fera’s assertion, the European Commission issued a two-year moratorium on the use of neonicotinoids on flowering crops. Yet, fourteen of the twenty-seven EU nations have objected to the ban, delaying the proposed suspension. The postponement seems to be good news for some, like arable farmer Mark Leggett. Leggett asserts that caution is needed before banning a product that helps farmers control pests and allows crops to be resilient.

Whatever the final objective behind the ban may be, recent research into the effects of pesticides on honeybee cognition shows promising progress for determining major causes of the decline of honeybee populations.